Fish and Seafood

Fact Sheets

Wild Pacific Salmon Overview

 

Table of Contents

Nomenclature
History and Life Cycle
Distribution and Harvesting
Management
Product Forms
Product Standards
Standards Glossary
Pacific Salmon Species Fact Sheets

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Nomenclature

Scientific Name	Common Name	Market Name
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha	Chinook salmon	Chinook, spring, king
Oncorhynchus keta	Chum salmon	Silver-bright, semi-bright, dark; dog; summer; keta
Oncorhynchus kisutch	Coho salmon	Coho, silver
Oncorhynchus nerka	Sockeye salmon	Sockeye, reds, red salmon
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha	Pink salmon	Pink, humpbacks

History and Life Cycle

The wild Pacific salmon is an ancient fish with a storied past and cultural connections that continue to this day. It is possible to trace the ancestry of this fish back six million years. In fact, the salmon's ability to move between fresh and salt water has enabled it to evolve through at least five major ice ages. A number of fish, among them carp, perch and cod, have salmonoid ancestors.

The five species of Oncorhynchus (so called because of the "hooked snout" they develop during sexual maturation) are unique in that they are anadromous (that is, they live in fresh and salt water) and they die after spawning. Pacific salmon return to the rivers of their birth to spawn and die, navigating their way past natural and man-made obstructions using an internal compass that has thus far defied scientific identification, driven by the biological urge to mate.

Each species of salmon has a different life cycle and each returns to its freshwater spawning grounds at different times. Pink salmon live only two years and spend the least amount of time in freshwater. In British Columbia (where the vast majority of all species of Canadian Pacific salmon originates), the larger pink runs occur in odd-numbered years; the runs in even-numbered years are much smaller. Chum salmon live three to five years, spending most of their time at sea. Coho remain in fresh water for a year before migrating to the ocean although some remain in fresh water for up to two years; their lifespan is three years. Spring salmon (the largest of the five species) live five to seven years and migrate long distances before returning to their river of origin in their fourth or fifth year. Sockeye, the most important commercial species in British Columbia, live four to five years, spending one or two years in freshwater nursery lakes. Sometimes sockeye remain in freshwater lakes for their entire life cycle; these are called "kokanee." To learn more about the life cycle of the sockeye salmon, click here. 

There are as many races of salmon as there are rivers to which the salmon can return. When salmon return to their rivers of origins, they are known collectively as a "run" which is, in turn, named after the river. In the case of sockeye salmon, the river of origin is sometimes significant. There are some seafood species that are thoroughly identified with their place of origin, so thoroughly, in fact, that the place name becomes their brand. Important runs of sockeye are known by the names of their rivers of origin. In Alaska, the best known example is Copper River sockeye, the first run of the year. In British Columbia, it is the Adams River run, an event that only happens in abundance every four years, where as many as two million fish crowd into the Fraser River and jockey their way past hydro-electric dams, through the turbulent waters of the Fraser River Canyon, up fishways around Hell's Gate, and over waterfalls to reach Adams River, 480 kilometres (300 miles) from the ocean. This heroic journey takes three weeks or more and is just one of the many reasons why Adams River sockeye is one of the most prized sockeye races in the world.

The importance of salmon to West Coast Native culture can hardly be underestimated. The image of the salmon dominates the art and architecture of coastal first peoples as they pay tribute to the animal with which they have forged a special spiritual bond. Some of these images have come into broader circulation as mainstream companies begin to use them on packaging and as part of promotional campaigns. Some of the product forms (such as salmon jerky and Indian candy) used for centuries by coastal peoples, are now becoming popular among a broader base of consumers. Indeed, many of the processes used for curing salmon were developed from Native practices.

The Canadian constitution gives aboriginal people the right to fish salmon for food and ceremonial purposes using methods both contemporary and traditional - from seines and gillnets to spears, hooks, dipnets and weirs. In some cases, pilot agreements also allow them to sell their catch. Many aboriginal people are also commercial fishermen. In fact, about one-third of all salmon licence holders are Native and the fishing industry is the largest single source of jobs for British Columbia's aboriginal peoples.

Distribution and Harvesting

The five species of Pacific salmon are found all along the coast of British Columbia. The Fraser River and its various tributaries in the Lower Mainland, Rivers and Smith Inlets in the Central Coast, the Nass and Skeena Rivers in the North, and the river system flowing from Barkley Sound on the West Coast of Vancouver Island are home to most of the populations in Canada. Generally speaking, however, salmon has a very broad spawning distribution range from the Mackenzie River to Point Chamalu Bay (Baja California) in the west, and from northern Russia to southern Japan in the east. The migration range of Pacific salmon is even greater. Pink salmon (living only two years) stay fairly close to the shore, but sockeye and chum range far afield in the pastures of the Pacific. Coho and Spring salmon do not usually migrate beyond the Aleutian Islands staying for the most part within the Gulf of Alaska. Even so, any species of Pacific salmon will travel thousands of miles in its lifetime.

There are many ways to harvest salmon. Aboriginal people (who have priority access for food, social and ceremonial purposes) still make use of the traditional methods of dipnets and spears to catch fish on their way upstream. Weirs and traps are also used to intercept salmon once they have moved into the river systems. The recreational hook-and-line fishery is also big business in British Columbia with many charter and fishing-lodge operations throughout the Gulf of Georgia as well as in more remote places like the Queen Charlotte Islands.

There are three principal fishing methods used by the commercial fleet. Trolling is similar to longlining in that it uses hooks and lines with different lures to catch the various salmon species.

 

Fishermen will change the lures and the way they are arranged on the lines to target different species. Trollers catch about 25 per cent of the commercial harvest. Seine boats use large nets to encircle a school of fish; once the nets are drawn up, the fish cannot escape. Seiners can target individual schools of certain species of salmon; they catch mainly sockeye, pink and chum, taking up to 50 per cent of the total harvest. Gillnets are regulated by length, depth and mesh size; these characteristics enable fishermen to target certain species and sizes of fish. Gillnets are attached to small boats, strung close to shore near rivers and inlets and continually tended. Gillnetters take about 25 per cent of the total harvest and the principal catch is sockeye and chum. To take a closer look at how these three types of vessels work, click here. 

Over the last five years, there have been massive changes in mandated fishing techniques for salmon and other finfish as a result of severely declining abundance. In 1998, Fisheries and Oceans Canada initiated a Selective Fisheries Program designed to assist licensed fishers in adapting gear and fishing practices in order to avoid or release unharmed non-target fish, invertebrates, seabirds and marine mammals. Selective fishing was made a federal policy in February, 2001, as part of Canada's long-term conservation strategy for rebuilding the resource, preserving biological diversity, and developing sustainable fisheries practices.

Management

In 1994, 90,000 tonnes of wild Pacific salmon were harvested. In 2000, 12,000 tonnes of salmon were caught. Part of this extraordinary decline is attributable to changes in ocean conditions in the latter half of the last decade which resulted in far fewer salmon returning to spawn. These significant changes in abundance caused Fisheries and Oceans Canada to rethink from top to bottom the way salmon is managed. Substantial fleet rationalization in the mid-'90s reduced the number of vessels in the industry while a new system of area licensing required fishermen to purchase separate licenses for each area of the coast in which they wished to fish. A new allocation policy gave the recreational sector priority for spring and coho and the commercial fishery priority access to sockeye, pink and chum. The policy on selective fishing ensured that gear would be modified and fishing practices altered in order that weak or non-targeted stocks could successfully be avoided or released unharmed.

Management Areas - Pacific Region
Source: Fisheries and Oceans Canada

In March, 2000, Fisheries and Oceans Canada released the Wild Salmon Policy - Discussion Paper which provides guidelines for conserving the long-term viability of Pacific salmon populations and their natural habitats. The Discussion Paper outlines six conservation-based principles for the management of the resource which emphasize the importance of maintaining diversity while optimizing sustainable benefits.

While these documents and the policies and practices that emanate from them provide a management framework of conservation and sustainability, it is still nonetheless true that salmon is a very complex fish requiring a management structure that can respond to the variations and fluctuations of the species. Fisheries managers must still collect and analyze data for each species so that they can estimate how many fish from each year class are expected to return in any particular run. Once the return is estimated, managers must decide the level of escapement necessary to replace or increase the run.

The first objective of salmon management is to ensure sufficient escapement, that is, to make certain that enough fish reach their spawning grounds. If that objective is not met, the run will not be guaranteed of survival. Water quality, temperature and levels, habitat and obstructions are just a few of the many elements that determine the number of salmon that actually make it to the grounds. The presence or absence of these elements must be factored into the fisheries manager's calculations on escapement. However, it is not enough just to ensure that a certain percentage of fish are not caught. Fisheries managers now understand that, in some runs, "early" fish are different from "late" fish, so part of the goal of preserving diversity now includes strategies for ensuring that escapement includes some salmon from the early and late portions of the runs. Only when escapement targets have been determined can a harvesting level be set.

Another objective is to manage the resource for maximum economic returns, however that might be defined. Native rights and recreational interests have to be balanced against commercial demands, and within the commercial fishery each gear type must be given appropriate opportunities for harvesting fish. All First Nations have priority access to harvest salmon for food, ceremonial and social purposes. In addition, the Nisga'a, a northern-coast band with land encompassing the Nass and Skeena Rivers, negotiated commercial sale fisheries which are permitted once surpluses to escapement have been identified. Several other pilot sales programs have been developed with other bands under the Aboriginal Fishing Strategy.

Every year, thousands of recreational anglers from around the world come to British Columbia seeking one of sports fishing's great thrills - catching a wild Pacific salmon. Sports fishers concentrate on the spring and the coho (the two species of salmon that offer the most challenge to the hook-and-line fisherman), but those who go out looking for dinner are also offered opportunities to catch sockeye, pink and chum salmon. Directed recreational fisheries for coho and chinook are permitted in many areas closed to commercial harvesters.

Salmon management is a complex and frustrating task rarely accomplished to the satisfaction of all stakeholders. In addition to all the preparatory work that must be done in advance of the season to determine escapement and potential surpluses, data collected during the run often necessitates changes to decisions made and announced months before.

In Canada, salmon is managed by Fisheries and Oceans Canada which also manages hatcheries and enhancement programs, issues licences and enforces regulations, and collects statistics on all runs of all species. But because of the migratory nature of the Pacific salmon, the laws of several international treaties are superimposed on the regulations established by Fisheries and Oceans (in Canada) and by the two Fisheries Management Councils that have jurisdiction over salmon in the United States. The first of these treaties established the Pacific Salmon Commission which manages the pink and sockeye salmon originating in the Fraser River Basin and found between the 48^th and 49^th parallels. This treaty reserves fish originating in each country to fishermen from that country. The second treaty, signed by Canada, the U.S, Russia and Japan, created the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission. This Commission is an important source of statistical and scientific work, but is even more significant for its role in eliminating the high-seas driftnet fishery for Pacific salmon and preventing the trafficking of illegally caught salmon.

To consult Fisheries and Oceans Canada salmon management plans in more detail or to view Salmon Updates as they are available during the season, click here. 

Description

For many reasons, it is important to be able to distinguish among the various species of salmon, but this task can be difficult, especially if the head of the fish has been removed. The following Pacific Salmon Identification Key (developed by British Columbia Research Corporation) is an excellent guide to the differences between species when the whole fish is available for examination.

Pacific Salmon Identification Key

Source: British Columbia Research Corporation

However, there are many occasions when a buyer will have to identify or specify a kind of salmon based on flesh colour alone. Salmon colour is the result of pigmentation by carotenoids, the most notable one being astaxanthin. Wild salmon obtain carotenoids from their food chain which begins with microscopic algae. The algae is eaten by crustaceans (such as small shrimp) which are in turn eaten by salmon. Besides providing colour, salmon can convert astaxanthin to vitamin A, an essential nutrient in reproduction, growth and immunity. Salmon flesh colour varies across a wide spectrum, from rich, red sockeye to ivory white springs, from pale pinks to light-red chums.

Colour means money, according to research conducted by pharmaceutical giant Hoffman-La Roche which manufactures an astaxanthin pigment which replicates the colour of wild salmon flesh in farmed salmon. The research revealed that consumers make a connection between colour, freshness and quality, associating deeply coloured flesh with higher quality and better-tasting salmon. In one study, consumers from the East and West coasts of the United States were shown salmon fillets matching the hues on the Hoffman-La Roche SalmoFan™. Colour 33 was preferred by a two-to-one (2:1) margin. This market research suggests that consumers believe darker salmon colours are indicators of higher quality and better taste.

However, not every buyer is in the market for top end, red-fleshed, premium product. Chum and pink salmon, with different quality characteristics relating to their lower fat content, fill an important niche with consumers. Nonetheless, a buyer specifying sockeye would be disturbed to receive fish that was less than a rich red in colour.

Fortunately, there are a number of tools available to help commercial buyers ensure that they are getting the grade, the skin colour and flesh colour they want. One of the best general resources is the Salmon Buyer's Technical Kit published by the Alaska Seafood Marketing Institute. The Hoffmann-La Roche SalmoFan ™ (1-800-263-0867) is in common use across the industry for communicating colour requirements for farmed and wild salmon. British Columbia Research Corporation developed the Salmon Ruler, a series of colour chips designed to match the five species of wild Pacific salmon at various points during their life cycle. Cor-El Food Corporation (corelfood@home.com) now markets the "Ruler."

Product Forms

Wild Pacific salmon is available in a variety of product forms: whole, dressed (several cuts available), steaks, fillets and roasts. A wide variety of value-added products are also available. These include salmon caviar, hot- and cold- smoked salmon, marinated fillets, frozen salmon entrées, salmon jerky, salted salmon, Indian candy, blocks, burgers, patties, and of course, canned salmon. New specialty products are coming on the market all the time, and the industry is well equipped to handle custom orders. More information on the value-added items created from the five species of Pacific salmon is included in each individual species fact sheet.

The place of canning in the history of British Columbia's salmon industry deserves to be recognized. Most published reports agree that the first salmon cannery in B.C. was established in 1870 by Alexander Loggie (who had learned the process of canning in his home province of New Brunswick) on the Fraser River downstream from New Westminster. According to a history of the salmon industry published by the Canadian Fishing Company, canning soon became the most popular form of preserving salmon. In 1876, there were three canneries in B.C., but by the turn of the century, there were more than 90. The annual salmon pack climbed from less than 100,000 cases of 48 pounds each in the late 1870s to more than two million cases by the early 1900s. By this time, local and foreign markets for canned, smoked and salted salmon were firmly established.

Sockeye and pink salmon make up the majority of the canned pack. Canning as a process creates a new product form with a taste and texture different from those of a fresh or frozen fish. But at the same time, it is a process that enables profitable use to be made of fish that, for one reason or another, could not have been marketed in fresh or frozen forms. Fins and tails are removed from headed and dressed salmon and the fish is steaked into pieces that fit, roughly, into the can. The traditional canned-salmon product contains skin and bones which add important calcium and nutrients to the product; however, a skinless-boneless canned salmon is also available. The cans are filled, vacuum sealed and heated in a retort so that the salmon is cooked and any bacteria killed. After the cans are cooled and dried, they undergo a rigorous checking process to ensure can integrity and the safety of the product.

After canning, smoking is the most important form of adding value. European-style, cold-smoked salmon is gaining in popularity with consumers since it is the preferred smoking method used with farmed salmon. High fat content results in better smoked salmon, so among the Pacific species, spring, coho and sockeye are most commonly cold-smoked; pink and chum less frequently. Most commercially available smoked salmon is processed in modern plants with carefully controlled machinery that ensures a uniform product. Many restaurants, however, prefer to smoke their own salmon, creating special recipes of ingredients that produce unique results. Boutique smokehouses have also flourished.

Hot-smoked salmon (sometimes sold as kippered salmon) has a stronger flavour than salmon that has been cold-smoked. Salmon jerky (a heavily salted and dried product) is also available. Somewhat of an acquired taste, salmon jerky is hard and lasts for long periods without refrigeration.

The purpose of modern smoking is to add flavour and value to the product, not to preserve it. For this reason, smoked salmon should be kept refrigerated and preferably frozen. Most retail presentations of smoked salmon are vacuum packed, but an increasing number of smokers are using retortable pouches for smoked salmon. These packs offer some of the benefits of canning in terms of shelf stability and length of preservation, but because the product is cooked in the pouch, the taste and texture are different from fresh or frozen smoked salmon.

Every year, more new and exciting value-added salmon products come on the market. Check the web site of the BC Salmon Marketing Council for information on the annual BC Seafood Sensations new product competition and ask individual suppliers what they have to offer. The Council has also prepared several cookbooklets aimed at increasing consumer knowledge of salmon preparation. Click here for dozens of tasty salmon recipes.

Product Standards

There are many criteria that may be used to establish grades or standards for fish. The following information was developed by the Fisheries Council of British Columbia. It describes the many characteristics of frozen, gutted Pacific salmon in terms of:

A. Those describing external appearance;
B. Those describing internal appearance;
C. Those describing flesh texture and odours.

and outlines the four factors contributing to the evaluation of salmon:

1. Condition of fish when caught;
2. Handling;
3. Storage conditions;
4. Sexual maturity.

The result is a three-grade standard that provides a great deal of helpful information and definitions that will prove particularly useful to the new commercial buyer of wild Pacific salmon.

GRADE 1

A Grade 1-quality fish when caught will be free from defects such as punctures, bites, cuts or disfiguring or open scars in the edible portion of the fish. The belly cavity and peritoneal lining must be intact. However, small, clean cuts or breaks in the lining or slight reddening of the peritoneum may be permitted. The flesh must be firm and resilient. Dressing must be thorough with no kidney tissue and no free blood left. Belly walls should be sound, indicating a healthy, well fed fish. Net marks that do not cut through the skin or bruise or soften the underlying flesh are permitted.

A. External criteria

• No cuts or breaks in the covering skin of the edible portion of the fish.
• Skin colour shall be typical of the species, except that slight dulling or water marking may be apparent on the dorsal surface. Any water marking will not be related to sexual maturity, but will be caused by skin contact between fish during post-catch handling.
• No reddening of skin caused by broken blood vessels on ventral surface exceptfor very faint reddening near anal and pectoral fins.
• Slight to moderate scale loss.
• Net marks will not indent, perforate or soften flesh.

B. Internal Grading Criteria

• No belly burn; peritoneal lining intact (very slight reddening may be permitted).
• Small clean cuts or breaks in the belly cavity up to 2.54cm (1 inch) in total length. No protruding ribs.
• Cleaning should ensure that the gut cavity is free from all viscera and blood. Reasonably free from residual blood water.
• No visible bruises or dark blood discoloration is permitted.

C. Flesh Texture and Odour

• Firm resilient flesh which does not leave impression when depressed. No flesh separation in belly cavity.
• The odour shall be fresh with no abnormal odours. As compared to other species, pink salmon flesh texture is the most delicate.

Frozen Characteristics to Meet Good Commercial Practice at Time of Shipment

Fish shall be protected by a complete glaze of ice or by a tightly wrapped membrane with no holes or tears. There will be no evidence of dehydration or freezer burn on the external surface and gut cavity of the fish. Individually frozen fish will be minimally distorted. There will be no oil migration (rust) on the surface of the fish.

GRADE 2

Fish in this category may exhibit some, but not all, defects in the different characteristics. The flesh may be soft to the extent that an impression from finger pressure will be retained. Small clean cuts, bites or punctures may be present. The belly cavity may have cuts, scrapes or some broken or cut ribs. Some ribs may be protruding as a result of belly burn. The belly lining may appear reddish due to slight belly burn.

A. External Grading Criteria

• Small clean cuts or breaks in skin, including punctures.
• Some dulling or water marking on skin may be apparent. Any water marking will not be related to sexual maturity, but will be caused by skin contact between fish during post-catch handling.
• Moderate reddening along lower ventral surface only.
• Moderate to heavy scale loss.
• Net marks may indent and soften flesh.

Internal Grading Criteria

• Belly burn may be obvious.
• Cuts and breaks up to 5cm (2 inches) in total length in belly cavity. Some ribs may protrude. Not more than one visible bruise up to 6 sq. cm. (1 sq. inch) permitted).
• Cleaning should ensure that the gut cavity is free from all viscera and blood. Reasonably free from residual blood water.

Flesh Texture and Odour

• Flesh may have lost most of its resilience (impression remains when flesh in depressed, fish appears limp). Some flesh separation permitted in belly cavity. As compared to other species, pink salmon flesh texture is the most delicate.
• No sour, rancid or abnormal odours.

Frozen Characteristics to Meet Good Commercial Practice at Time of Shipment

Fish shall be protested by a complete glaze of ice or by a tightly wrapped membrane with no holes or tears. Fish may have slight freezer burn or slight oil migration. No rancidity in the flesh will be permitted. Individually frozen fish may be moderately distorted.

COMMERCIAL GRADE

Fish in this grade will be those salmon falling below Grade 2 but will be fit for human consumption.

External Grading Criteria

• Clean cuts or breaks in skin from any source may exist.
• Dulling or water marking on the skin may be apparent. Any water marking will not be related to sexual maturity, but will be caused by skin contact.
• Extreme reddening of belly may be evident.
• Heavy to extreme scale loss.
• Net marks may indent, perforate and soften flesh.

Internal Grading Criteria

• Moderate to extreme scale loss.
• Clean cuts or tears in skin and belly cavity.
• Visible bruises permitted.
• Cleaning should ensure that the gut cavity is free from all viscera and blood. Reasonably free from residual blood water.

Flesh Texture and Odour

• Fish may appear very soft (limp). Flesh separation may be obvious in belly cavity. As compared to other species, pink salmon flesh texture is the most delicate.
• Slight off odours are permitted.

Frozen Characteristics to Meet Good Commercial Practice at Time of Shipment

Fish may be reconditioned if dehydration, glaze damage, moderate rust or freezer burn is present. Fish may be misshapened or distorted. Moderate rust or oil migration may be evident.

SEXUAL MATURITY

Sexual maturity is a major factor used to grade salmon. The characteristics addressed are: skin colouration, nose hooking, dorsal humping, belly-wall thickness, flesh colouration, oil content and flesh texture. For more information on the changes salmon undergo as they become more sexually mature, see the section "Characteristics of Sexual Maturity" in each individual Pacific salmon fact sheet.

GRADE STANDARDS GLOSSARY

Barring: A vertical skin pattern which develops on the dorsal and ventral side of chum salmon.

Belly burn: Enzyme action within the digestive tract which dissolves and discolours peritoneal tissue in the belly cavity.

Blood water: A very diluted solution of residual blood and wash water which remains in the belly cavity after gutting and washing.

Blushing: A red or rosy colouring.

Dehydration: Depletion of body fluids.

Dorsal: Pertaining to the upper surface or back.

Dorsal humping: Swelling of the upper surface or back.

Flesh separation: Detachment of muscle segments.

Freezer burn: Dehydration of the surface of frozen fish.

Gaff: A handled hook for holding or lifting fish.

Gill covers: Exterior plate of the head, which covers the gills.

Gutted: Eviscerated; to take out all entrails, which includes gills and kidney.

Nose hooking: Bending of the upper and lower jaw.

Oil migration: Droplets or smudges of oil or fat on the skin surface. Also known as rust or oxidation.

Pectoral: Pertaining to the ventral area behind the head.

Peritoneal lining: Smooth transparent serous membrane that lines the belly cavity.

Residual blood: Blood in the belly cavity which remains after initial gutting.

Sea-run: Typical of fish harvested at sea.

Ventral: Pertaining to the lower surface of the body or head.

Watermarking: Pertains to the dulling of the skin; resulting from skin contact with other fish or ice or other surfaces after death. (Changes in skin colour are also attributable to sexual maturity which is addressed in the individual species fact sheets.)

Pacific Salmon Species

For more information on individual Pacific salmon species, link to any of the following fact sheets:

Chinook, Spring, King
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha

Chum
Oncorhynchus keta

Coho, Silver
Oncorhynchus kisutch

Pink
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha

Sockeye
Oncorhynchus nerka

Related Sites 

• British Columbia Salmon Marketing Council
• Fisheries and Oceans Canada
• Pacific Salmon Commission